“Memento mori” was the phrase Roman generals heard as they returned from a victorious campaign. That reminder, “remember that you are mortal” (or “that you are a man”, according to other versions), was the way someone lower in the military hierarchy instilled humility and a healthy dose of realism. The importance of these grounded voices remains critical across many spheres, extending beyond the military into personal and professional life.
Much ink has been spilled on how managers can bring out the best in their staff and ensure the team performs at the highest level. Examples from the world of sport are easy to find. Yet what has received far less attention, and is by no means less influential, is how employees can help their managers become better leaders and, in turn, boost team performance. The key lies in what management handbooks have dubbed upward communication.
Professor Shuqi Li and her co-authors explore this very territory in a recent study published in Human Relations. Across two studies, the researchers examine how employee input can influence superiors and contribute to better leadership.
What you will learn in this article?
The memento mori mentioned at the outset fits neatly into one of the two types of voice identified in 2012 by Liang and colleagues as forms of employee expression (employee voice): promotive voice and prohibitive voice.
- Promotive voice occurs when an employee suggests proactive work improvements to the team leader that could boost team productivity. Managers and team leaders tend to welcome these future-oriented proposals, complete with tangible solutions and a constructive tone.
- Prohibitive voice occurs when an employee alerts the leader to potential errors, inefficiencies, or practices with harmful consequences. These warnings are just as vital, but they can trigger greater friction among managers than promotive voice because they level direct criticism by spotlighting inefficiencies.
Both voices are equally valuable and necessary, as both focus on strengthening the team through feedback and suggestions. One proposes improvements, while the other warns of potential mistakes and inefficiencies. However, the study’s authors assume that while promotive voice will be readily embraced, prohibitive voice will hinge on how leaders interpret the information. This interpretive capacity is known as construal level, or level of abstraction.
Managers with a high construal level (abstract mindset) are expected to connect employee proposals and criticisms with the broader organisational goals, viewing warnings from their team as opportunities to sharpen decision-making. Conversely, managers with a low construal level (concrete mindset) will fixate on immediate difficulties and may perceive criticism or warnings as a personal attack. That is why the authors suggest that prohibitive voice will prove just as beneficial, provided it meets managers with a high construal level on the receiving end.
To test their hypotheses, the authors conducted two studies. The first relied on a daily survey administered over ten days to 53 managers enrolled on an MBA programme. Data collection was structured across three points in the day. An initial baseline questionnaire assessed each manager's construal level or level of abstraction.
Later, at midday, they reported on the promotive and prohibitive voices they had heard throughout the morning. Finally, in the evening, they were surveyed on their levels of inspiration, alongside items designed to measure transformational leadership behaviours.
Employee input can inspire superiors and, through that inspiration, foster transformational leadership behaviours.
The findings showed that promotive voice inspired every manager, whereas prohibitive voice was associated with a significant level of inspiration only among those with a high level of abstraction. Furthermore, they demonstrated that inspiration serves as a mediator between employee voice and transformational leadership—manifested in behaviours such as projecting confidence, showing optimism and enthusiasm, or taking a genuine interest in team members. In other words, employee input can inspire managers and, through that inspiration, foster transformational leadership behaviours.
In a second study, the researchers ran an experiment with 280 managers split into two groups. The first group was asked to recall a specific incident where an employee had put forward an improvement proposal (promotive voice) or voiced a concern (prohibitive voice). The second group (the control group) was asked to reflect on a recent workday, with no mention of employee voice.
Carving out space for honest, constructive dialogue allows proposals and concerns to be voiced in an atmosphere of trust.
Without getting bogged down in methodological details, this experiment confirmed what the first study found: promotive voice heightened inspiration across all managers regardless of construal level, whereas prohibitive voice only sparked inspiration in managers with a high construal level, who were able to see criticism as a chance to improve.
That is the theory, but how does it translate to day-to-day operations and a positive workplace climate? These findings carry clear practical takeaways for organisations, managers, and employees alike.
- For organisations: It is vital to recognise that both voices (promotive and prohibitive) can benefit leaders, teams, and ultimately the organisation as a whole. While the benefits of prohibitive input depend on a manager’s level of abstraction and their ability to interpret criticism as an opportunity for improvement, companies should establish spaces for honest, constructive dialogue where proposals and concerns can be voiced in an atmosphere of trust and calm.
- For leaders: It is essential to learn how to distinguish between an alert regarding potential inefficiencies or risks and a personal attack. This is rarely straightforward, particularly when criticism challenges their own decisions. Stepping back and linking employee concerns to the team’s overarching goals helps turn these observations into opportunities for improvement.
- For employees: Sharing ideas and concerns can be immensely helpful, not just to improve how the team functions, but to inspire leaders. Nevertheless, being mindful of timing, tone, and delivery remains paramount. The goal is not merely to point out what isn't working, but to contribute constructively toward solutions, bearing in mind the responsibilities and constraints managers face.
Ultimately, these findings remind us that leadership is not a one-way street. Managers can inspire their teams, but employees can equally inspire their managers when the right communication channels are in place. A relationship built on trust, respect, and dialogue ensures that everyone plays a part in improving leadership and team performance.
Sources:
Li, S., Johnson, R. E., Lee, H. W., & Scott, B. A. (2025). Inspired to be transformational: The interplay between employee voice type and manager construal level. Human Relations, 78(10), 1276-1309.
Liang, J., Farh, C. I., & Farh, J. L. (2012). Psychological antecedents of promotive and prohibitive voice: A two-wave examination. Academy of Management Journal, 55(1), 71-92.
Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological review, 117(2), 440.
Dr Marc Grau is Professor of Social and Family Policy at the Education Sciences Faculty, UIC Barcelona, and Coordinator of the Joaquím Molins Figueras Chair for Childcare and Family Policies. He was research fellow at Harvard Kennedy School (2016-2022) and has a Master in Business Administration from ESADE Business School, as well as a Master in Social and Political Science from the University Pompeu Fabra and Doctorate in Social Policy from Edinburgh University. He has published several books, including The Work-Family Balance in Light of Globalization and Technology (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017), The New Ideal Worker (Springer, 2019), Engaged Fatherhood (Springer, 2022) and Human Flourishing (Springer, 2023). He is currently Co-Editor of the magazine Community, Work and Family.